About Traditional Hispanic Food Essay

Hispanic American: â€Å"Heritage† is defined as the customs and traditions that are handed down from generation to generation of families and society. A person with Latino heritage is a descendant of a family from Mexico, Central America, or South America. Peeps who are Hispanic are from a country where Spanish is spoken. Let’s check out some of their traditions. Hispanic Food Hispanic foods have many different characteristics, but one of the main things that make it distinctive is that it tends to be spicy! Here are some traditional Hispanic dishes: * Moles: Pronounced Mo-lay, the name of this dish comes from the Aztec word for â€Å"mixture.† Mole Poblano de Guajolote, is a mixture of dried chiles, nuts, seeds, vegetables, spices and chocolate. * Tortillas: This flat bread is made of wheat flour or masa and forms the base of tons of tasty Mexican dishes like enchiladas, burritos and fajitas. * Ceviche: A Mexican dish of raw fish marinated in limejuice, often in a chopped salad. * Poc Chuc: A Yucatecan specialty made with pork fillet cooked with tomatoes, onions and spices. About Traditional Hispanic Food Traditional Hispanic food is full of flavor and a variety of textures: crunchy; chewy; gooey; and stringy. The most popular Hispanic foods are derived from rice and vegetables and use a flavor base called sofrito to season their dishes and soups. Sofrito is a mild tomato base that is a staple in traditional Hispanic food cooking methods. Many restaurants carry some form of Hispanic food on their menus, such as rice-filled enchiladas, tacos, nachos or flan. History The word â€Å"Hispanic† describes someone who comes from Spain or Spanish-speaking Latin America. The Spanish colonial period took place between 1492 and 1898, when Spaniards migrated from Spain and brought with them traditional Hispanic foods. Hispanic food stems from the traditional cooking methods of ancestors from the countries of Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar; it is from here that Hispanic people draw their heritage and roots as well as their primary methods of cooking and developing recipes. The history of Hispanic food dates to when the Hispanic population began to learn how to cook off the land by growing rice, chilies, beans, tomatoes in the rich, moist climate of Spain. The population added meat and dairy into the recipes, providing meat for tacos and cheeses for garnishing. Hispanic food has transitioned over the years and taken on slight variations of the original corn tortilla that is now cooked in oil, as well as spicier forms of rice implemented with cheese and peppers to include foods that are found in many fast-food restaurants, chain restaurants and supermarkets. Types Tortillas are served plain, warm or fried and can be used as the base for many Hispanic food dishes. Corn tortillas can be made into tacos or corn chips that can be used as an accompaniment to salsa or bean dip. Flour tortillas are also popular and provide a substitution when necessary for tacos and other Hispanic food dishes. Rice and beans make up a huge part of traditional Hispanic food recipes. Rice and beans can be used as a side dish that goes well with tacos and enchiladas as well as a filler for burritos, tacos and chimichangas. Meats, such as shredded or crumbled beef, shredded chicken and pork, make up the majority of Hispanic food’s main dishes, some of the most popular being parrilladas, tampiquenas and fajitas. Variations of vegetables can found throughout traditional Hispanic food, such as varieties of chiles, potatoes, jicama, yucca, nopales, tomatillos and some types of squash. Significance Traditional Hispanic food is eaten every day in Hispanic households, with foods such as quesadillas, tacos, nachos, Mexican pizzas, taco salads and burritos being the most popular. The celebration of Hispanic holidays, such as Cinco de Mayo, brings out the full tradition of traditional Hispanic food across many areas around the world. Many traditional Hispanic drinks are also served for this celebration of Hispanic heritage and pride, such as tequila, margaritas and Mexican beer. Some of the most popular Hispanic dishes that are prepared during Cinco de Mayo are carnitas, barbocoa, moles and menudo. Identification Traditional Hispanic food can be identified by the appearance of the tortillas and the thick, rich enchilada sauces that can be green, brown or red and resemble a thick gravy. Rice and refried beans typically are served inside of the tortillas or on the side, and this dish can be referred to as an enchilada or as a chimichanga if it is deep fried on the outside. Melted cheese over the top of the dish is also a good indication of Hispanic food. Function The function of Hispanic food is to fulfill the traditional ways of growing, eating and serving Hispanic food. Hispanic food is high in carbohydrates, making it a filling meal because of the beans and cheese that are served along with it. The combination of the beans and cheese with the spicy seasonings and salsa give the food added flavor and traditional Hispanic flair. Hispanic food can be made into meals for large groups of people and large families quickly, cheaply and easily. Most Hispanic food keeps for a long time and does not spoil if stored in a cool, dry location. Reference: http://www.ehow.com/about_4578072_traditional-hispanic-food.html CUBA : Cuban Cuisine Cuban cuisine has been influenced by Spanish, French, African, Arabic, Chinese, and Portuguese cultures. Traditional Cuban cooking is primarily peasant cuisine that has little concern with measurements, order and timing. Most of the food is sauteed or slow-cooked over a low flame. Very little is deep-fried and there are no heavy or creamy sauces. Most Cuban cooking relies on a few basic spices, such as garlic, cumin, oregano, and bay laurel leaves. Many dishes use a sofrito as their basis. The sofrito consists of onion, green pepper, garlic, oregano, and ground pepper quick-fried in olive oil. The sofrito is what gives the food its flavor. It is used when cooking black beans, stews, many meat dishes, and tomato-based sauces. Meats and poultry are usually marinated in citrus juices, such as lime or sour orange juices, and then roasted over low heat until the meat is tender and literally falling off the bone. Another common staple to the Cuban diet are root vegetables such as yuca,malanga, and boniato, which are found in most Latin markets. These vegetables are flavored with a marinade, called mojo, which includes hot olive oil, lemon juice, sliced raw onions, garlic, cumin, and little water. A typical Cuban breakfast consists of a tostada and cafe con leche. The tostada is a portion of Cuban bread which is buttered then toasted on an electric grill. The cafe con leche is a combination of strong, espresso coffee with warm milk. Cubans break the tostada into pieces, then dunk them into the cafe con leche, as Americans would dunk their doughnuts into their coffee. Additionally, some may eat ham croquetas, smoky creamed ham shaped in finger rolls, lightly breaded, and then fried. For those on the run, with no time or desire to eat, a shot of cafe cubano, Cuban coffee, will revive the dead. Lunch consists of empanadas, chicken or meat turnovers, or cuban sandwiches. The sandwich could be a media noche (midnight sandwich), consisting of a slice of pork, ham, and swiss cheese and then topped with pickles and mustard on sweetened egg bread. The pan con bistec is a thin slice of palomilla steak on Cuban bread garnished with lettuce, tomatoes, and fried potato sticks. One may also order a side ofmariquitas, thinly sliced plantain chips, to accompany their hearty sandwich. For snack time, Cuban bakeries are famous for their finger foods, such aspastelitos, croquetas, bocaditos, and empanadas. Pastelitos are small flaky turnovers in various shapes filled with either meat, cheese, guava, or a combination of guava and cream cheese. Bocaditos are small bi te size sandwiches layered with a ham spread. Dinner will usually consist of a meat, chicken, or fish dish as the entree accompanied by white rice, black beans, and maduros, sweet fried plantains. At times, a small salad of sliced tomatos and onions or avocados might be added to the meal. The meal is followed by dessert, such as the typical flan, a Cuban caramel-flavored custard, and another shot of cafe cubano. Other equally popular alternatives for dessert are bread or rice puddings. For holidays or special occasions, the one dish that typifies Cuban cuisine would be a small pig, marinated with salt, garlic, and sour orange juice, and then roasted over an open fire, and slowly cooked for several hours. The accompaniments for such a dish could consist of congri, a white rice and black bean mixture also known as Moors and Christians, boniato in a garlic dressing, and maduros. For refreshments, the most typical drinks are the daiquiri and the mojito. Both are made with lime juice and pure cane rum. Reference: http://www.education.miami.edu/ep/littlehavana/Cuban_Food/Cuban_Cuisine/cuban_cuisine.html Puerto Rican cuisine has its roots in the cooking traditions and practices of Europe (Spain), Africa and the Amerindian Taà ­nos. In the latter part of the 19th century, the cuisine of Puerto Ricowas greatly influenced by the United States in the ingredients used in its preparation. Puerto Rican cuisine has transcended the boundaries of the island, and can be found in several countries outside the archipelago. The cuisines of Spain, Taà ­no and Arawaks Amerindians, and parts of the African continent have had an impact on how food is prepared in Puerto Rico. Although Puerto Rican cooking is somewhat similar to both Spanish and Latin American cuisine, it is a unique tasty blend of influences, using indigenous seasonings and ingredients. Locals call their cuisine cocina criolla. The traditional Puerto Rican cuisine was well established by the end of the nineteenth century. By 1848 the first restaurant, La Mallorquina, opened in Old San Juan. El Cocinero Puertorriqueà ±o, the island’s first cookbook was published in 1849. Puerto Rican dishes are well seasoned with combinations of flavorful spices. The base of many Puerto Rican main dishes involves sofrito, similar to the mirepoix of French cooking, or the â€Å"trinity† ofCreole cooking. A proper sofrito is a sautà © of freshly ground garlic, tomatoes, onions, recao/culantro, cilantro, red peppers, cachucha and cubanelle peppers. Sofrito is traditionally cooked with olive oil or annatto oil, tocino (bacon), salted pork and cured ham. A mix of stuffed olives and capers called alcaparrado are usually added with spices such as bay leaf, cumin, sazà ³n and adobo. List There are plenty of recipes. Here are just a few: * Albondigà ³n – Puerto Rican meatloaf. * Alcapurrias – made from a mixture of mainly yautà ­a and may contain ground squash, plantains, green banana and other starchy tropical tubers filled with ground meat or seafood and deep fried in oil. * Almojà ¡banas – cheese-flavored rice fritters. * Araà ±itas – a combination of fried ripe and unripe shredded plantain, seasoned with salt, garlic and spices. Squash and other tubers can also be added. * Arepas / Domplines – Puerto Rican dumplings; fried rounds of flour-based dough. Sometimes they can contain coconut (known as arepas de coco). They are sometimes stuffed with seafood. This dish is particular to the Eastern and Southern parts of Puerto Rico. * Arroz con habichuelas – Rice and beans, a staple. Pink and red beans are the most common. The beans are cooked together with recaito base, stock, chunks of ham, potatoes and/or calabaza(tropical pumpkin), alcaparrado, tomato sauce to thicken stew, and flavored with spices. When done, the beans are then ladled over a mound of rice. Sticky medium-grained rice is more popular in Puerto Rico than long grain rice. * Arroz con pollo – Chicken and rice cooked in the same pot. Traditionally, chicken is seasoned with adobo, then placed in a pot with rice, annatto oil, sofrito, stock, beer, olives, and capers. * Bacalaà ­tos – These are fritters made from a pancake-like batter containing codfish, flour, and seasoning. * Buà ±uelos – Yam fritters. * Tortilla – Puerto Rican style omelette. * Tostones – twice-fried plantains. * Trifongo – similar to mofongo, but made with fried cassava, green plantains, and ripe plantains. * Tripleta – A sandwich made with a combination of three meats, such as beef, roast pork, chicken, and ham * Quesitos – cheese pastries Holiday dishes Pasteles / similar to the Mexican â€Å"tamales† * Arroz con dulce – Puerto Rican rice pudding, made with coconut milk and coconut cream, as opposed to only bovine milk or cream used elsewhere. Other flavors added into Arroz con Dulce include cloves, ginger, raisins soaked in rum, vanilla, cinnamon, brown or white sugar, heavy cream or milk and sometimes lemon zest. * Arroz con gandules – a yellow-rice-and-pigeon-pea dish with alcaparrado (capers and olives stuffed with red peppers), and pieces of meat (bacon, smoked ham, smocked turkey orchorizo). The spices and seasoning usually include cumin, bay leaf, annatto oil, sofrito, banana leaf, dry oregano, thyme, and stock. It is part of Puerto Rico’s national dish, along with pig roast. * Coquito – A popular Christmastime drink is coquito, an eggnog-like rum and coconut milk-based homemade beverage. The holiday season is also a time that many pià ±as coladas are prepared, underscoring the combination of pineapples and coconuts seen in Puerto Rican cuisine. [7] * Ensalada de pulpo – Octopus salad * Pasteles – For many Puerto Rican families, the quintessential holiday season dish is pasteles (â€Å"pies†), usually not a sweet pastry or cake, but a soft dough-like mass wrapped in a banana or plantain leaf and boiled, and in the center chopped meat, shellfish, chicken, raisins, spices, capers, olives, sofrito, and often garbanzo beans. Puerto Rican pasteles are similar in shape, size, and cooking technique to Latin American tamales. The dough in a tamal is made from cornmeal; while in a Puerto Rican pastel it is made from either green bananas and/or starchy tropical roots. The wrapper in atamal is a corn shuck or a banana leaf; the wrapper in a Puerto Rican pastel is a banana leaf. * Pig roast – Pork is central to Puerto Rican holiday cooking, especially the lechà ³n (spit-roasted piglet). Holiday feasts might include several pork dishes, such as pernil (a baked fresh pork shoulder seasoned in adobo mojado), morcilla (a black blood sausage), tripa (tripe), jamà ³n con pià ±a (ham and pineapple), gandinga (stewed pork innards) and chuletas ahumadas (smoked cutlets). * Stuffed turkey – Popular from November to January. The Thanksgiving turkey is often seasoned with adobo mojado and stuffed with mofongo or ground beef or pork mixture containing almonds,raisins, olives, hard boiled eggs, tomatoes, and garlic. Instead of the thin slices seen in the North, a baked turkey in Puerto Rico is often cut into large blocks or chunks to be served on a plate. Riceis a mandatory course in dishes such as Arroz con Gandules (rice with pigeon peas), Arroz con Tocino (rice with bacon), Arroz Mampostea’o, and the sweet dessert Arroz con Dulce (rice pudding). * Sweets – Sweets are common in Puerto Rican cuisine. During the holidays, the most popular are desserts such as Arroz con Dulce (sweet rice pudding), Budà ­n de Pan (bread pudding),Bienmesabe (little yellow cakes soaked in coconut cream), Brazo Gitano – Puerto Rican style sponge cake with cream and / or fruit filling), Buà ±uelos de viento – Puerto Rican wind puffs soaked in a vanilla, lemon and sugar syrup), Barriguitas de Vieja (deep-fried sweet pumpkin fritters), Natilla, Tembleque (coconut pudding), Flan (egg custard), Bizcocho de Ron (rum cake), Mantecaditos (Puerto Rican shortbread cookies), Polvorones (a crunchy cookie with a dusty sweet cinnamon exterior), Turrà ³n de Ajà ³njolà ­ (a toasted sesame seed bar, bound together by caramelized brown sugar),Mampostiales (a very thick, gooey candy bar of caramelized brown sugar and coconut chips, challenging to chew and with a strong, almost molasses-like flavor), Dulce de Leche (milk and key lime peelingsà ¢â‚¬â„¢ caramel pudding), pastelillos de guayaba (guava pastries), Besitos de Coco (coconut kisses), Tarta de Guayaba (guava tarts), and Tortitas de Calabaza (pumpkin tarts). Haiti: Haitian cuisine originates from several culinary styles from the various historical ethnic groups that populated the western portion of the island of Hispaniola, namely the French, African, and the Taà ­no Amerindians. Haiti is similar to the rest of the Latin-Caribbean (the French and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Antilles), however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts. Its primary influence derives from French and African cuisine, with notable derivatives from native Taà ­no and Spanish culinary techniques. Though similar to other cooking styles in the region, it carries a uniqueness native only to the country and an appeal to many visitors to the island. Haitians use vegetables and meats extensively and peppers and similar herbs are often used for strengthening flavor. Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally and consequently. Haitian cuisine tends to be moderately spicy, not mild and not too hot. In the country, however, many businesses of foreign origin have been established introducing several foreign cuisines into the mainstream culture. Years of adaptation have led to these cuisines (e.g.: Levantine from Arab Migration to Haiti) merging with Haitian cuisine.  "Manje Kreyà ²l† (Haitian food) is the equivalent of criollo cooking (criollo meaning â€Å"creole†) in other countries. This encompasses most of what is regularly cooked in Haiti, involving the extensive use of herbs, and somewhat unlike Cubancooking, the liberal use of peppers. A typical dish would probably be a plate of diri kole ak pwa (rice and beans), which is brown rice with red kidney or pinto beans glazed with a marinade as a sauce and topped off with red snapper, tomatoes and onions. The dish can be accompanied by bouillon (bouyon), known as sancocho in some neighboring countries. Bouillon is a hearty stew consisting of various spices, potatoes, tomatoes, and meats such as goat or beef. Rice is occasionally eaten with beans alone, but more often than not, some sort of meat completes the dish. Chicken (poul) is frequently eaten, the same goes for goat meat (kabrit) and beef (bà ¨f). Chicken is often boiled in a marinade consisting of lemon juice, sour orange, scotch bonnet pepper, garlic and other seasonings and subsequently fried until crispy. Legim is a thick vegetable stew consisting of a mashed mixture of eggplant, cabbage, chayote, spinach, watercress and other vegetables depending on availability and the cook’s preference. It is flavore d with epis, onions, garlic, and tomato paste, and generally cooked with beef and/or crab. Legim is most often served with rice, but may also be served with other starches, including mayi moulen (a savory cornmeal porridge similar to polenta or grits), pitimi (cookedmillet), or ble (wheat groats). Other starches commonly eaten include yam, patat (neither of which should be confused with the North American sweet potato), potato, and breadfruit. These are frequently eaten with a thin sauce consisting of tomato paste, onions, spices, and dried fish. Tchaka is a hearty stew consisting of hominy, beans, joumou (pumpkin), and meat (often pork). Tchaka is eaten by people and also used as an offering to the lwa in Vodou. Spaghetti is most often served in Haiti as a breakfast dish and is cooked with hot dog, dried herring, and spices, served with ketchup and sometimes raw watercress. One of the country’s best known appetizers are Pate, which are meat or salted cod patties surrounded by a crispy or flaky crust. Other snacks include akra (crispy, spicy fried malanga fritters), banann pese, and marinad (fried savory dough balls). For a complete meal, they may be served with griyo (fried pork) or other fried meat. These foods are served with a spicy slaw called pikliz which consists of cabbage, carrot, vinegar, scotch bonnet pepper, and spices. Fried foods, collectively known as fritay, are sold widely on the streets. Regional dishes also exist throughout Haiti. In the area around Jà ©rà ©mie, on Haiti’s southwest tip, people eat a dish called tonmtonm, which is steamed breadfruit (lam veritab) mashed in a pilon, and is very similar to West African Fufu. Tonmtonm is swallowed without chewing, using a slippery sauce made of okra (kalalou in Haitian Creole), cooked with meat, fish, crab, and savory spices. Another regional dish is poul ak nwa (chicken with cashew nuts), which is from the north of the country, in the area around Cap-Haà ¯tien. Waves of migration have also influenced Haitian cuisine. For example, immigrants from Lebanon and Syria brought kibbeh, which has been adopted into Haitian cuisine. The flavor base of much Haitian cooking is epis, a combination sauce made from cooked peppers, garlic, and herbs, particularly green onions, thyme, and parsley. It is used as a basic condiment for rice and beans and is also used in stews and soups. Increasingly, imported Maggi bouillon cubes are used by Haitian cooks. This is indicative of the growing availability of imported, often artificial and inexpensive, foods, such as Tampico beverages. Beer Beer is one of several common alcoholic beverages consumed in Haiti, often drank at festivals, parties, and occasionally downed with a meal. The most widely drank brand of beer in Haiti is Prestige, a nationally popular mild lager with a taste similar to many commercialized beers such as Budweiser and Miller Light. The beer has a light and crisp yet mildly sweet taste with a vague yet strong flavor reminiscent of several American-style beers. Prestige is brewed byBrasserie Nationale d’Haiti (owned by Heineken). Rum Haiti’s rum is extremely popular among its inhabitants , in addition to those in other societies. The most known company in the country is the world-renowned Rhum Barbancourt; one of the nation’s most famous exports and by international standards, the country’s most popular alcoholic beverage. It is unique in that the distilleries use sugarcane juice directly instead of molasses like other types of rum. The rum is marketed in approximately 20 countries and uses a process of distillation similar to the process used to produce cognac. The liquory creamed drink called crà ©mas is also drunk in Haiti. It is a popular beverage usually consumed as part of dessert or simply by itself. It has a sweet like flavor that you can taste. Clairin Clairin or kleren is another popular drink; it is equivalent to moonshine and is distilled from molasses, it is distilled twice sometimes to have a higher proof of alcohol. It is widely popular and small distilleries can be found throughout the countryside. Clairin is at least 100 to 120 proof. Double distilled, it can easily be 150 to 190 proof. Clairin may be more popular than rum, because it is much cheaper and less labour intensive to make. Cremas Cremas, also spelled Cremasse (Kremas in Haitian Creole), is a sweet and creamy alcoholic beverage native to Haiti. The beverage is made primarily from creamed coconut, sweetened condensed and/or evaporated milk, and rum. The rum used is usually dark; however, white rum is used frequently as well. Various other spices are added for additional flavoring such as cinnamon, nutmeg, anise, as well as miscellaneous ingredients such as the widely used vanilla extract or raisins. Recipes vary from person to person with a few differences in ingredients here and there. However the overall look and taste is the same. The beverage possesses a creamy consistency similar to a thick milkshake and varies from off-white to beige in color. The drink is popular in Haiti and is served regularly at social events and during the holidays. It is usually consumed along with a sweet pastry of some sort. The drink is often served cold however it can be served at room temperature. The beverage has become recent ly marketed in Haiti as well as the United States. One of the popular brands is Dorobe. It is similar to Puerto Rican Coquito. Non-alcoholic Due to its tropical climate, juice is a mainstay in Haiti. Juices from many fruits are commonly made and can be found everywhere. Guava juice, grapefruit juice, mango juice, along with the juices of many citrus fruits (orange, granadilla,passion fruit, etc.) are popular. Juice is the de facto beverage because of its variety of flavors, easy production, and widespread accessibility. Malta is also a popular non-alcoholic drink consisting of unfermented barley with molassesadded for flavor. In more urban areas of the nation, the people enjoy Americanized drinks such as an array of soft drinks, in which Coca-Cola dominates all other local soft drinks. Milkshakes are also drunk regularly. Desserts Many types of desserts are eaten in Haiti ranging from the mild to sweet. Sugarcane is used frequently in the making of these desserts however granulated sugar is also used often. One very popular dessert is fresco which can be whipped up quickly. Fresco is similar to an Italian Ice, however it consists primarily of fruit syrup. The syrup is moderately thick and very sweet. It is frequently sold by street vendors. The sweet smell of this candy-like snack often attracts honeybees and a common sight on the streets is a hurried vendor handing out frescos surrounded by swirls of bees. Pen Patat is a soft sweet bread made using cinnamon, evaporated milk, and sweet potato. It is usually served cold from the refrigerator but it can also be eaten at room temperature. Akasan is a thick corn milkshake with a consistency similar to that of labouille (in Creole, â€Å"labouyi†) (a popular porridge made from corn). It is made using many of the same ingredients as Pen patat consisting of ev aporated milk, sugar, and corn flour.

Family Witnessed Resusitation Essay

There are several legal and ethical issues relating to FWR. Some of the key legal concerns expressed by healthcare professionals include the potential for litigation, patient confidentiality, and the patient’s right to privacy (Mian et al, 2007; Critchell et al, 2007). Litigation and liability concerns arise from the fact that, in most cases, family members will have little understanding of the procedures used in the code room. The fear is that the staff’s actions could be perceived as detrimental or harmful to the patient in the eyes of the typical lay-person. The reality is that once healthcare providers become educated and experienced with FWR, this fear is alleviated, as found in a study conducted by Mian et al (2007). In this same study however, confidentiality and privacy concerns were unchanged, suggesting that this is an issue hospitals will need to address if they are to implement FWR. The ethical issues involved with FWR revolve around the mental and emotional impact that families and medical professionals may experience if a code is witnessed. Performance anxiety and the potential loss of professional distance from the patient for healthcare providers and how traumatic the experience may be for family members are major ethical concerns with FWR (Mian et al, 2007; Critchell et al, 2007). Mian et al found that nurse attitudes regarding potential trauma for the family improved with experience while physician attitudes did not. Studies of family member reactions suggest that the experience is not excessively traumatic for family and may actually be a beneficial part of the grieving process (Critchell et al, 2007). Performance anxiety for the staff seems to be the bigger issue. Though this factor seems to improve with experience (Mian et al, 2007), staff anxiety will still be a driving concern when it comes to the ethical consideration of whether or not it is beneficial for family members to be present. Discuss the viewpoints of various medical professionals in regards to FWR The general trend in opinions regarding FWR is that nurses tend to favor it while physicians tend to be against it (Critchell et al, 2007). The study conducted by Mian et al looked at attitudes pre- and post- FWR experience and in both situations found that nurses had a more favorable view of FWR (2007). While there are many potential reasons for this trend, one possible explanation is that nurses have more interaction with the patient and the patient’s family, thus establishing more of a connection which in turn makes nurses feel more comfortable with family members present. Discuss the patient and family experiences associated with FWR Most people believe that it is their right to be present during a loved-one’s resuscitation, should they so desire. Contrary to the fears of the medical community, family members who have been present during a resuscitation report that the experience was not traumatic for them and would in fact opt to witness it again. Also, being present seems to provide a sense of closure and security in knowing that everything possible was done to save their loved one’s life (Critchell et al 2007). What is your opinion regarding family presence during resuscitation ? Do you support this practice? Why or why not? I believe that the immediate family members should be given the option to be present during resuscitation of the patient. I believe that it is the immediate family members’ right to be present if they choose to be and if they are not disruptive to the medical team that is attempting to resuscitate the patient. I support this practice because of my own beliefs. I would want to be present if my family member was critically ill and needed to be resuscitated. It would give me the opportunity to support my loved one, to have closure, to have a sense of the severity of their illness, and to say my goodbyes if my loved one was not able to be resuscitated. If I were a patient, I would also want to have my immediate family at my side. I might be alert and scared during the resuscitation. Knowing that my family was at my bedside would be comforting to me.

The Resumption of Killing Whales

The following paper is about the resumption of whaling by Norway with a focus on the American attitude towards whaling in general. Whaling is a very sensitive issue for many people, including myself. There are many people who feel that whales are highly intelligent mammals, akin to humanity in many ways. They cite the fact that whales mate for life, the size of the average whales brain, and the proof that whales communicate with one another ; all of these traits they share with us. The anti-whaling people feel that to kill whales for their meat or oil, would be like killing people for their meat or oil. The pro whaling people don't buy any of their reasoning. The pro whaling people feel that it is their right to use their resources any way that they want, and no one can tell them what to do. These people don't feel that whales are intelligent or that the size of their brains has any thing to do with it. The people of Norway don't see a problem with whaling because they were raised w ith it. The anti-whali An international study by Milton Freeman and Stephen Kellert, published in 1992, surveyed people in 6 major countries including Australia, Germany, Japan, Norway, The United Kingdom and The United States about their attitudes towards whales and whaling. 57% of the US respondents confirmed that they â€Å"opposed the hunting of whales under any circumstances† and 55% felt that â€Å"even regulated whaling must be abandoned† (Skare 1994). Although none of the respondent groups showed a high level of knowledge on the subject, all seemed to agree on the following points. 1. The protection of whale habitats from pollution and disturbance. 2. Maintaining an â€Å"ecosystem† perspective in whale management. 3. Basing harvest levels on the most sound scientific advice available. In Norway where whale hunting was once a big industry the proponents of whaling scoff at the prospect of a world without whaling. Norway claims that whaling in their country dates back more than ten thousand years (Skare 1994) and that history, they claim, gives them the right to exploit the resources that they have available to them; what they don't say is that those â€Å"resources† aren't really their own to exploit. Eric Doyle, a member of Greenpeace, an environmental watchdog group, explained to me (over the telephone) that the boundaries that countries draw up don't mean anything to whales or even to whaling boats in some instances. Doyle, explained that because Norway is one of the very few countries that have resumed whaling ,their boats aren't closely watched, and are often overlooked because there aren't many of them out there (Doyle 1995). Norwegians who are involved in whaling, hunt Minke whales in the northeast Atlantic, where the whale stock is estimated to consist of approximately eighty-six thousand seven hundred minke whales (Donovan 1994). In the late eighties Norway imposed a ban on itself that ended whaling, commercially, whaling for the purpose of scientific research, however continued with no end in sight. The History of The Regulated Whaling Industry†¦ Whaling has always been a source of income and, whales an endless source of useful products. The meat for our diets, the oil to lubricate our cars and bicycles, the blubber to make shampoo, soap, and many other products too numerous to mention (Skare 1994). However with the invention of synthetic oils and the notion of healthy living on our minds; the average American has little interaction with whale products. This fact has constituted the main body of the anti-whaling argument, as if to say, if the Americans can live without whaling then everyone else can too. In nineteen-twenty six, the League of Nations created a subcommittee to oversee and regulate the growing whaling industry; but it was not until nineteen forty-six that a working regulatory committee was established. At the initiative of the United States, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) was adopted by the League of Nations. The ICRW called for such a working committee, and thus the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was created. ICRW was intended to safeguard and regulate whale stocks for future generations, and also to ensure the orderly development of the growing whaling industry. The only catch (pardon the pun) is that the ICWR made it possible for any country to exempt itself from the IWC's rules by simply filing a formal protest and abstaining from voting on referendums brought up at the yearly meetings of the IWC. To no ones surprise, after approving the ICRW, Norway immediately filed a formal complaint and abstained from every vote the IWC held; thereby exempti â€Å"But the matter of substance is, what is the point of having a scientific committee if it's unanimous recommendations on a matter of primary importance are treated with such contempt? † Hammond was expressing his frustration and anger with Norway for exempting themselves from the ICRW, and with the IWC for being powerless to enforce any of it's own rulings. Norway went ahead with its plan to whale that year and took 226 whales and an additional 69 for research. In 1993 the catch totaled 369 animals with an unknown number (either additional or included) taken for research, and the 94†² season saw 411 animals with an additional 178 for ,you guessed it, research. Norway continues to whale against the recommendations of the IWC, Greenpeace and every other organization that tracks Cetacean population levels. At the time this paper was created there were no totals for the 1995 season, but if the numbers follow the trend of the past three seasons, the catch is guaranteed to be higher than that of the 1994 season. That could mean the deaths of over 600 minke whales. Regardless of the side one takes, it is becoming evident that some thing must be done before this problem becomes too large to handle. Possible Solutions This debate has gone on for many years and in all likelihood will go on for many more, with no end in sight some solutions must be found in order to reach some kind of settlement or compromise. Some of these solutions might include.

Do Corporate Incentive Programs Pay Thesis Proposal

Do Corporate Incentive Programs Pay - Thesis Proposal Example According to a survey conducted by Incentive Federation in 2005, organizations implement incentive programs with aim to: boost morale; show concern for workers; generate leads; improve customer service; improve quality and productivity; foster teamwork (Incentive Performance Center, 2008). Of these, increase in workers’ productivity and efficiency is an important corollary of the corporate incentive programs. A Russell Index study on publicly held stocks of Fortune magazine’s list of â€Å"100 Best Companies to Work For† observed that since 1998, these companies have returned to the investors five times that they could have earned by a broader market index, such as the S&P 500 (Incentive Performance Center, 2008). This undoubtedly exemplifies the relationship between â€Å"best places to work for† and return on investment (ROI) viewed from the stand point of investors. But does the same relationship hold good for productivity and efficiency; more important ly in organisations that are outside the gambit of Fortune magazine’s list of 100 best companies to work for; though, the researcher personally believes it to be. Further, does â€Å"best-place-to-work-for† include corporate incentive? Therefore, it becomes necessary to empirically verify that corporate incentive programs invariably do have a strong positive correlation with workers’ productivity and overall organisational efficiency.... This undoubtedly exemplifies the relationship between â€Å"best places to work for† and return on investment (ROI) viewed from the stand point of investors. But does the same relationship hold good for productivity and efficiency; more importantly in organisations that are outside the gambit of Fortune magazine’s list of 100 best companies to work for; though, the researcher personally believes it to be. Further, does â€Å"best-place-to-work-for† include corporate incentive? Therefore, it becomes necessary to empirically verify that corporate incentive programs invariably do have a strong positive correlation with workers’ productivity and overall organisational efficiency. In other words, do corporate incentive programs work well in enhancing workers’ productivity and organizational efficiency? It also becomes necessary to understand about the elements that are contained in the recipe of â€Å"best-place-to-work-for† and their interrelatio nships; and how they are correlated? Literature Review In pursuit of this research question, it is intended that a thorough understanding of the current conditions in the field of study is made so that besides being familiar with the studies undertaken so far and current thinking on relevant issues, the researcher is also aware of the general problems and opportunities existing in this field of research. Nonetheless, the necessity of identifying the key gears of this study and developing sufficient insight on how they work cannot be overestimated. The researcher identified a three-component assembly for this research: (1) corporate incentives, (2) workers’ productivity, and (3) organisational

Prepare a strategic management report of approximately 3500 words, Essay

Prepare a strategic management report of approximately 3500 words, which evaluates the structure of an organisation and industry in Turkey.Assume that the audie - Essay Example To improve the overall business environment and effectiveness of the organisation, the response patterns and management approaches are identified. The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey also known as TÃ ¼rkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez BankasÄ ± has its head office located in Ankara, Turkey and was established as a joint-stock company with the majority of shares belonging to the Treasury. The bank has 4770 employees and is the fundamental centralised bank of Turkey controlled by the government (TCMB history, 2005). The first major bank in Turkey was the Ottoman Bank that was jointly set up with French and British capital in 1856. The Ottoman bank became a state bank and achieved the monopoly of issuing bank notes. Although the Turkish Republic extended the period of privilege of the Ottoman Bank until 1935, a new plan to set up the central bank was under way by 1926. The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey was established by law 1715 which was enacted on June 11, 1930. The central bank had the privilege of issuing bank notes and this remained its monopoly for 30 years (TCMB, retrieved 2005). The privilege was further extended in 1955 and was extended indefinitely in 1994. The main aim of the bank was to support the economic development of the country so the bank was entrusted to the following duties and responsibilities. Several changes were made to the central bank law with the introduction of economic development plans for Turkey during the 1960s. The law 1211 restructured the responsibilities of the central bank and implemented the financial policies within the framework of developmental objectives of the country (TCMB, 2005). The organisation chart shows that the general assembly is subdivided into an auditing committee, the governor and the board. There are four vice governors who oversee the different departments of the banking divisions. Within each of these divisions there are management departments and

Research Methods in the Social Sciences Assignment - 6

Research Methods in the Social Sciences - Assignment Example The researcher critically analyses the advantages and disadvantages of the already conducted researches. Research Procedure: Chapter IV describes the research procedure, in which variables, concepts, universe, sampling and pre-testing etc are examined. The researcher argues in favor of his decision for choosing the universe and tool for data collection etc. Research Findings: In chapter V, the researcher describes in a detailed manner the findings of the research procedure, which are generally presented in tabular and graphic forms. Hence, the chapter is the interpretation of research findings. Summary: Sixty and final chapter is the summary of the entire research work, which also presents conclusion on the basis of research findings. The chapter also made valuable suggestions for the future studies at large. Literature review is considered to be the most imperative chapter of a research process, which actually explains the parameters of the present study by interlinking it to the previous studies have already been made on same or similar topics. Literature review critically examines the previous studies and evaluates their advantages and drawbacks as well. Literature review, according to Bourner , is highly significant for identifying gaps in the literature, to avoid reinventing the wheel , to carry on from where others have already reached, to identify other people working in the same fields, to increase your breadth of knowledge of your subject area, to identify seminal works in your area and to provide the intellectual context for your own work, enabling you to position your project relative to other work. (1996:22) Hence, literature review maintains great significance in its fold by covering various aspects being applied in the new study while conducting the entire work. Relevant li terature and studies must be analysed in a critical manner by highlighting both negative and positive aspects rather

MKTG 3000 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

MKTG 3000 - Essay Example The public who attracted towards this ad will take more time in analyzing the features of this advertisement. The theme of this ad is that the two pieces of Bounty chocolate available in the chocolate packet displayed in the picture are not mere chocolates, but â€Å"Two pieces of paradiseâ€Å" just like the two thighs of the female model represented in the advertisement. The ad tried to keep consistency in its theme as the model has wore only two pieces of dress and the entire picture consists consist of only two other objects; a coconut tree and a beach. The coconut tree moving in the wind and the beach at the backdrop are giving more pleasant feelings to the viewers of this advertisement. This advertisement ask the readers to enjoy the taste of the Bounty chocolate just like they are enjoying the thighs of the female model presented in the advertisement. The above advertisement clearly shows that how fierce is the competition in the food market. The advertisers are not taking any ethical means while preparing their advertisements. Their intention is only to catch the attention of the public and for that purpose they are ready to go up to any extent. I don’t think the above advertisement may succeed in increasing the sales of the Bounty chocolate beyond certain limits. Current consumers are more aware of the quality of the goods they are purchasing rather than the attractiveness of the advertisement. At the same time, because of the variety displayed, the above advertisement may catch the attention of the teenagers. The intention of the advertiser might be the same also. The intrusion of television and internet like medias decreased the demand of magazine and journal like print medias. People are spending less time for reading printed articles nowadays and therefore printed ads are not reaching the eyes of the public adequately. If the printed ads are not much good in catching the attention of

Report assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Report assignment - Essay Example Body: 76 expectant mothers have been interviewed for this survey. They were asked to describe Honey bear in one word that first come to their mind. 57 of the responded used negative adjectives such as â€Å"depressed†, â€Å"gloomy†, etc. to describe the honey bear; however only 8 responded positively used the words like â€Å"cute†, â€Å"appealing†, etc. The result of the survey clearly indicates that not all the people find Honey bear appealing. It is true that they were considered attracted way back in the 90’s but in modern age there is a need of changing the so called authentic image of the Honey bear. The graphic design department needs to make it more attractive by changing its shape and adding more colors to it or at least changing its position and introducing more poses. When the interviewees were asked that what can be done by the firm to make the honey bear more attractive they suggested to add more colors and add more poses. Now it is the responsibility of the graphic design department as well as the marketing department to work in collaboration on the design of the honey bear, based on the result that has been extracted from the interviewing the expecting mothers. As the mothers are the target market for the children’s clothing and bedding; therefore their opinion matters a lot as they will also be the potential buyers of the product. The result of the survey is clear. The audience wants innovation in the design. They want it to be more colorful as the children get attracted to such thing (Lascurain). Closing: the graphic design department needs to understand the fact that people no longer gets attracted to the old designs. If they will be using the old cartoon they must add new characteristics and innovative features to make it more interesting and make it more appealing in the eyes of the customers. The graphic

Chinas Economy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chinas Economy - Assignment Example The military power, technological advancement and the currency of China have drastically improved over the past years, which is a sign of economic dominance. These aspects of the economy combined with the fast growth are likely to surpass those of the United States. According to IMF, THE CHINESE ECONOMY GREW BY AN AVERAGE OF 9.6 PERCENT PER YEAR BETWEEN 1990 AND 2010 (Babones, 2011). This projection indicates that China has one of the fastest growing economies in the world. The country survived the global financial crisis of 2008 and managed to expand its economy, which indicates real economic supremacy. CHINAS ECONOMY HAS BEEN TRANSFORMED BY SUCCESSIVE WAVES OF ECONOMIC REFORM (Naughton, 2007). Market transition has led to a market economy dominated by exports and multi-national firms. The country has managed to dismantle the command economy and decentralize the effects of communism in order to create a market economy and empower the rural people. This has created a fair playing gro und for market participants, which has extended to the international market. This has led to the sudden rise of China as a global trading center and several investors have invested in Chinese firms. ECONOMIC REFORMS HAVE FAVORED FOREIGN INVESTMENT, WHICH HAS ALLOWED FOREIGN FIRMS CLAIM A SHARE OF INDUSTRIAL EXPORTS (Gilboy, 2004). The government has also been instrumental in supporting the private sector by giving private companies access to capital, technology, and markets. This has improved the output from these firms and their contribution to the country’s GDP, which has strengthened Chinas’ economy. OVER THE PAST 30 YEARS, CHINA HAS EXPERIENCED THE GREATEST AND MOST RAPID REDUCTION OF EXTREME POVERTY (Katz, 2008).The country has improved the living condition of the poorest people in the country and reduced poverty levels. The continuing growth rate has improved the living conditions of the Chinese people, which have supported economic supremacy of the country. THE RAPID ECONOMIC GROWTH HAS IMPROVED THE ECONOMIC WELL-BEING OF THE CHINESE PEOPLE AND ALTERED THE STRUCTURE OF THE SOCIETY (Pei, 2006). The economy is less state-centered as was the tradition, which has enabled the country consume much of its products by improving the living condition of the population. Chinese citizens have improved their access to information through telephones and televisions. These have improved the communication and transport industries in the country, which are some of the rapidly growing industries in the country. The contribution of these industries in the country’s GDP has helped improve the economy and expansion into the global economy. China has experienced high levels of savings and investment, which has contributed to the rapid economic growth. INVESTMENT RATES IN CHINA ARE MUCH HIGHER THAN IN OTHER COUNTRIES WITH COMPARABLE LEVELS OF PER CAPITA INCOME (CSIS, 2006). This has enabled the growth of per capita stock that has facilitated the transitio n from agricultural labor to the modern sector. The investment into the modern sector has introduced a center for a new labor force that has improved the output from the sector. FACTORS OF PRODUCTION SUCH AS LABOR AND CAPITAL HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO CHINA’S ECONOMIC GROWTH (Angang, 2011). The savings from the labor force have improved the purchasing power of the population. Direct investments in the country have improved capital formation that has helped the citizens improve their savings and their purchasing power. This has helped improve the country’s GDP and its competing abilities with superpowers such as USA. ASIA’S PRODUCTION ASSEMBLY HAS ATTRACTED SEVERAL INVESTORS FROM

Modern Chinese History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Modern Chinese History - Essay Example According to him, self-strengthening programs that advocated for training led to the introduction of modern schools and arsenal. To achieve National and personal strength, he acknowledged that it does not only arise from the  physical effort  but also the will to acquire and preserve. He argued that a strong leadership and physical prowess merely depend on the will of the individuals to act heroically (Schell 205). These notions intertwined with Confucius teachings help to shape the beliefs and behavior of the nation. Although some individuals despised his concepts and ideas, he demonstrated, taught, and inspired Chinese through his writing through his publications. These writings were effective in cultivating moral standard inspired by truth. This resulted in the eruption of May Fourth Incident in 1919, where individuals demonstrated. A movement by the name May Fourth movement emerged with a collective desire to liberate China and cultivate a new Chinese culture (Schell 207). It targeted to change the political system of the country to make it flexible to accommodate further changes that may occur in the future. Although the movement did not have a clear objective, they opted to attract good governance even though it shall be through violent and harsh manner. The group appreciated the concepts that Mao taught in Chen Duxius, New Youth. According to the movement, direct violent among other political actions are fundamental ingredients for revolutionary action. After working for a longer time in the university library, Mao Zedong returned home in 1920 to form a study group. The group discussed Marxism and socialist  ideologies.Within the group, he emphasized the concept of Marxism especially the historical materialism that described history and dynamics of developing the  history.

A illustrated time line 1945 1997 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

A illustrated time line 1945 1997 - Coursework Example As a result, the coalition government ended as Labour leader Clement Attlee clearly won majority seats over Winston Churchill. In addition to this, the year also finished with celebration of the victory in the World War II. In 1948 National Health Service was established and Labour government made significant changes that promote medical services. Moreover, a free paid system was introduced to those who registered with a doctor. Labour Leader Clement Attlee was re-elected as Prime minister in 1950. Later British troop were sent to support the USA in the cold War at South Korea. In the year 1951, Winston Churchill won the general election under Conservative party and became the Prime Minister for the second time at the age of 76. He promoted foreign affairs, reduced pressure of Cold War and maintained good relationship with the USA. He once said that â€Å"We see nothing but good and hope in a richer, freer, more contented European commonalty. But we have our own dream and our own ta sk. We are with Europe, but not of it. We are linked, but not comprised. We are interested and associated, but not absorbed† (Britannica.com). After the death of George VI in 1952, his daughter Elizabeth II became the Queen and the Prime Minister supported her. In 1955 Winston Churchill at the age of 80 went on retirement due to the health issues. His successor was Anthony Eden who won the general elections in 1956. Furthermore, British power station was turned on for the first time. However, Egypt decided to nationalize the Suez Canal and American intervention made Britain and France to withdraw and Egypt got the canal back. As a result, it placed America higher over them. In the year 1957, The Prime Minister Sir Anthony Eden resigned due to Suez Crisis and was taken over by Harold Macmillan. Besides, Britain tested its first hydrogen bomb and joined to Soviet Union. The Conservatives leader Harold Macmillan won the general election with great margin of votes

Team Reflection Essay Example for Free

Team Reflection Essay Novelty products for retail sale Capital expenditure purchases of large equipment that are used for the business. Kitchen Equipment (Grill, Refrigeration, Dishwasher) Air Conditioning Unit Copy or Fax Machines Computers Weekly Topics Related to the Common Contracts This week we reviewed how the statute of frauds apply to common law Contracts that involve the sale of an interest of land Contracts that cannot be performed in under one year. Contracts to pay the debt of another (such as a loan surety) Contracts made in consideration of marriage (such as a prenuptial) We also discussed contract performance and the obligation of the parties to perform within the requirements or agreement of a contract. The parties agree on terms and perform the contractual obligations in good faith in order to complete the contract. Topics Comfortable With How the UCC Article 2 can be applied on a contract for the sale of goods between two merchants. Understanding the different types of contracts. Identifying the appropriate source of law for each contract type. The duty to mitigate, It was surprising to learn that the law imposes an obligation to take appropriate steps in order to avoid incurring damages and losses. As long as one can avoid the damages with reasonable effort, without undue risk or expense, they may not be able to sue the other party. Topics Struggled With Anticipatory Repudiation – how is the non-breaching party entitled to a remedy The IRAC method is still a topic most of us are still struggling with.

Introduction Of Melamine Milk History Essay

Introduction Of Melamine Milk History Essay In 2008, Chinese milk was a food safety incident in China involving milk, infant formula, other food materials and components added with melamine. Melamine is used to manufacture melamine-formaldehyde resin a type of plastic known for its flame retardant properties. They added melamine that has nitrogen-rich and is illegally added to food products to increase their apparent protein content. It has also been used as non-protein nitrogen in soy meal, corn gluten meal and cottonseed meal used in cattle feed. Melamine is known to cause renal and urinary problems in humans and animals when it reacts with cyanuric acid inside the body sometimes in drinking water and in animal feed. The Kjeldahl and Dumas test the protein levels fail to distinguish between nitrogen in melamine and naturally occurring in amino acids allowing the protein levels to be falsified. Introduced into milk, it can help conceal its fraudulent dilution with water. November 2008 China reported 300,000 victims, six infants dying from kidney stones and other kidney damage. The chemical appeared to have been added to milk in order to cause it to appear to have higher protein content. In a separate incident four years before, watered-down milk had resulted in 13 infant deaths from malnutrition. The scandal broke on 16 July, after sixteen infants in Gansu Province who had been fed on milk powder produced by Shijiazhuang-based Sanlu Group were diagnosed with kidney stones. After the initial focus on Sanlu market leader in the budget segment government inspections revealed the problem existed to a lesser degree in products from 21 other companies. The issue raised concerns about food safety and political corruption in mainland China, and damaged the reputation of Chinas food exports with at least 11 countries stopping all imports of mainland Chinese dairy products. A number of arrests occurred as a result of the scandal; the head of Sanlu, seven local government officials, as well as the Director of the Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine (AQSIQ) were fired or forced to resign in response to the incident. In late October 2008, similar adulteration with melamine was discovered in eggs and possibly other food, traced to melamine being added to animal feed-despite a ban imposed in June 2007 following the scandal over pet food exported to the United States. As of July 2010, Chinese authorities were still reporting some seizures of melamine-contaminated dairy product in some provinces, though it was unclear whether these new contaminations constituted wholly new adulterations or were the result of illegal reuse of material from the 2008 adulterations Source of contamination The World Health Organization (WHO) said that melamine may be found in a variety of milk and milk products at varying levels, from low (part per billion) ppb to (part per million) ppm ranges. One academic suggests it may have been part of the food chain in China for a long time, as cyromazine (a melamine derivative) is a very commonly used poison in China. Cyromazine is absorbed into plants as melamine, and may therefore be present in the food chain, which includes poultry, eggs, fish, and dairy products. It is not known where in the supply chain the melamine was added to the milk. The chemical is not water-soluble and must be mixed with formaldehyde or another chemical before it can be dissolved in milk. Caijing reported that spiking fresh milk with additives such as melamine was no longer a secret to Hebei dairy farmers for the past two years. Caijing reported that the melamine in the tainted milk may have come from scrap melamine costing  ¥700 per tone less than one-tenths of the price of 99% pure industrial grade melamine. The melamine production process produces pure melamine by crystallization; the melamine remaining in the mother liquor is impure (70%) and unusable for plastics, so it is scrapped. It said that Sanlus baby formula melamine content was a result of tampering by adding low cost vegetable protein (such as low grade soya powder), and large amounts of scrap melamine as filler. Scrap melamine contains impurities such as cyanuric acid that form more insoluble crystals than melamine alone, aggravating the problem. Victims On 17 September 2008, Health Minister Chen Zhu stated that tainted milk formula had sickened more than 6,200 children, and that more than 1,300 others, mostly newborns, remain hospitalized with 158 suffering from acute kidney failure. By 23 September, about 54,000 children were reported to be sick and 4 had died. An additional 10,000 cases were reported from the provinces by 26 September. A World Health Organization official said 82 percent of the children made ill were 2 years of age or below. The Hong Kong Centre for Food Safety said that 99% of victims were aged less than 3 years. Ten of Hong Kong children were diagnosed with kidney problems at least four cases were detected in Macau and six in Taiwan. Non-human included a lion cub and two baby orangutans which had been fed Sanlu milk powder at Hangzhou Zoo. The government said on 8 October it would no longer issue updated figures because it is not an infectious disease, so its not absolutely necessary for us to announce it to the public. Compiled figures reported by local media across the country, and said the toll stood at nearly 94,000 at the end of September, excluding municipalities. Besides that, 13,459 children had been affected in Gansu, Reuters quoted Xinhua saying. Henan had reported over 30,000 cases, and Hebei also had nearly 16,000 cases. In late October, the government announced that health officials had surveyed 300,000 Beijing families with children of less than 3 years of age. It disclosed that approximately 74,000 families had a child who had been fed melamine-tainted milk, but did not reveal how many of those children had fallen ill as a result. Due to the many months before the scandal was exposed, media suggests that official figures are likely to be understated. Kidney stones in infants started being reported in several parts of China in the past two years. A number of yet to be officially acknowledged cases were reported on by the media. However, those deaths without an official verdict may be denied compensation. On 1 December, Xinhua reported that the Ministry of Health revised the number of victims to more than 290,000 and 51,900 hospitalized authorities acknowledged receiving reports of 11 suspected deaths from melamine contaminated milk powder from provinces, but officially confirmed 3 deaths On treatment of urinary stones in affected infants, the New England Journal of Medicine printed an editorial in March 2009, along with reports on cases from Beijing, Hong Kong and Taipei. Urinary calculi specimens were collected from 15 cases treated in Beijing and were analyzed as unknown objects for their components at Beijing Institute of Microchemistry using infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, and high performance liquid chromatography. The result of the analysis showed that the calculus was composed of melamine and uric acid and the molecular ratio of uric acid to melamine was around 2:1. In a study published in 2010, researchers from Peking University studying ultrasound images of infants who fell ill in the 2008 contamination found that while most children in a rural Chinese area recovered, 12 per cent still showed kidney abnormalities six months later. The potential for long-term complications after exposure to melamine remains a serious concern, the report said. Our results suggest a need for further follow-up of affected children to evaluate the possible long-term impact on health, including renal function. Sanlu group The scandal began with revelations of contamination of Sanlu milk products. The New Zealand dairy cooperative Fonterra which owns a 43% stake in Sanlu, said they were alerted to melamine contamination on 2 August (almost a month before the issue became public), and have said to have pushed hard for a full public recall. Although there was an immediate trade recall, Fonterra said that local administrators refused an official recall Apologize On 15 September, the company issued a public apology for the contaminated milk powder. Sanlu was ordered to halt production, and to destroy all unsold and recalled products. Authorities reportedly seized 2,176 tons of milk powder in Sanlus warehouses. An estimated 9,000 tons of product had been recalled. Tian Wenhua, Chairwoman and General Manager of Sanlu and Secretary of the Sanlu Communist Party chapter was stripped of her party and functional posts during an extraordinary meeting of the Hebei provincial standing committee of the four Shijiazhuang officials, including vice mayor in charge of food and agriculture, Zhang Fawang, were reportedly removed from office. Shijiazhuang Mayor Ji Chuntang resigned on 17 September. Li Changjiang minister in charge of the AQSIQ was forced to resign on 22 September after the State Council inquest concluded that he was responsible for the negligence in supervision. Investigators also blamed the Shijiazhuang government. Local Party Secretary Wu Xi anguo was fired on the same day. Arrests Sanlu GM Tian was charged under Articles 144 and 150 of the criminal code. A spokesman for the Hebei Provincial Public Security Department said police had arrested 12 milk dealers and suppliers who allegedly sold contaminated milk to Sanlu, and six people were charged with selling melamine. 300  kg of suspicious chemicals, including 223  kg of melamine, were confiscated. Among those arrested were two brothers who ran a milk collection centre in Hebei for allegedly supplying three tones of adulterated milk daily to the dairy the owner of another collection centre which resold seven tons of milk a day to Sanlu, was arrested, and his operation was shut down. Zhang Yujun (alias Zhang Haitao), a former dairy farmer from Hebei, produced more than 600 tons of a protein powder mixture of melamine and maltodextrin from September 2007 to August 2008. He and eight other traders, cattle farm owners and milk purchasers who bought the powder from him were arrested in early October, bringing the total to 36. During the week of 22 December 2008, 17 people involved in producing, selling, buying and adding melamine in raw milk went on trial. Tian Wenhua, former Sanlu general manager and three other company executives appeared in court in Shijiazhuang, charged with producing and selling milk contaminated with melamine. According to Xinhua, Tian pleaded guilty, and told the court she learned about the tainted milk complaints from consumers in mid-May. She then apparently headed a working team to handle the case, but did not report to the Shijiazhuang city government until 2 August. The Intermediate Peoples Court in Shijiazhuang sentenced Zhang Yujun and Geng Jinping to death, Tian Wenhua to life in prison, on 22 January 2009. Zhang was convicted for producing 800 tons of the contaminated powder, Geng for producing and selling toxic food. The China Daily reported Geng had knelt on the courtroom floor and begged the victims families for forgiveness during the trial. The court also sentenced Sanlu deputy general managers Wang Yuliang and Hang Zhiqi to fifteen years and eight years in jail respectively, former manager Wu Jusheng to five years. Several defendants have appealed. Zhang Yujun and Geng Jinping were executed on 24 November 2009. Effect on the company The value of the company plunged as a result of the scandal. On 24 September, Fonterra announced that it had written down the carrying value of its investment by NZ$139  million (two-thirds), reflecting the costs of product recall and the impairment of the Sanlu brand because of the criminal contamination of milk. By 27 September, China Daily reported that Sanlu was close to bankruptcy, and might be taken over by the Beijing Sanyuan Foods Company. The company is also facing lawsuits from parents. The Beijing Review said that Sanlu expects to have to pay compensation claims totaling 700  million, and it became clear that the company would be broken up and sold. On 25 December, Shijiazhuang court accepted a creditors bankruptcy petition against Sanlu. Media commentators expected the Sanlu distribution network to be sold. Trade and industry impact for Chinese industry The State Council ordered the testing of product of all dairy producers, and to this end, some 5,000 inspectors were dispatched. The mainland Chinese market has grown at an average annual rate of 23% since 2000. In 2006, milk production reached 30  million tons, ten times the volume of a decade before. It was valued at some  ¥122  billion (US$18  billion) in 2007, and consumers have severely lost confidence in the industry. The events have exposed the often incestuous relationship between local business and local government. In addition to the tax revenues to local authorities Sanlu contributed  ¥330  million in 2007, many companies invite local officials to become silent partners in their corporations in return for protection at the political level; former Sanlu chairman Tian Wenhua, was made honorary deputy to the Provincial Peoples Congress. The scandal has also highlighted structural problems of inadequate production volume, inherent quality issues, and poor production methods. The Inner Mongolia region produces over one-fourth of Chinas milk and Mengniu and Yili have invested millions to establish state-of-the-art dairy facilities in its capital, Hohhot the companies still rely on small-scale farmers for over 90% of their production because of the capacity constraint of the modern facilities. Both companies were said by farmers and agents to have habitually purchased milk which failed quality tests, for only two-thirds the normal price. A new policy was put in place on 17 September to stop that practice. Foreign operations in China Mengniu-Arla, joint-venture between Danish/Swedish co-operative Arla Foods and Mengniu halted production on 16 September 2008 after three out of 28 tests taken from Mengniu showed traces of melamine; contaminated batches had been recalled.Mengniu, milk supplier to Starbucks was replaced by Vitasoy when the coffee retailer eschewed milk in favor of soya milk in its China operations. KFC also suspended selling Mengniu milk. Tokyo-headquartered Lotte Group a major snacks maker, recalled its Koalas March cookies in Hong Kong and Macau because of contamination, and promised to look deeply into all the details of the manufacturing process in order to preserve customer confidence. The range was also ordered off Dutch and Slovakian shelves. Its Chocolate Pie was seized when samples tested positive in Malta. On 29 September, British confectionery group Cadbury withdrew all of its 11 chocolate products made in its three Beijing factories, on suspicion of melamine contamination. The recall affected the mainland China markets, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Australia. Tests in Hong Kong found excessive amounts of melamine in China-made Dairy Milk products. On 30 September, Unilever recalled its Lipton milk tea powder after the companys internal checks found traces of melamine in the Chinese milk powder used as an ingredient Heinz recalled cases of baby cereal in Hong Kong after discovering they contained melamine. Nestlà ©s factory in Heilongjiang was also implicated: the Taiwanese Department of Health forced the delisting of six Neslac and KLIM products on 2 October for containing minute traces of melamine, although the minister said they did not pose a significant health risk. Since the milk crisis broke, Nestlà © says it has sent 20 specialists from Switzerland to 5 of its Chinese plants to strengthen chemical testing. On 31 October, it announced the opening of a $10.2  million Beijing research and development centre, to serve as the base and the reference in food safety for Nestlà © in Greater China. Nestlà © Chief Technology Officer said that the centre was equipped with highly sophisticated analytical tools for detecting trace amounts of residues and undesirable compounds like melamine or veterinary drugs or natural toxins http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2008_Chinese_milk_scandal EFFECT ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE ADVANTAGES: No problem of dead baby. No problem of infant breast. DISADVANTAGES: Loss job. Increase in countrys income. Relationship between local business and local government. Ruin relationship with other country. CONCLUSION The foods that have melamine content bring bad impact not only to the customers who are using the product but to the producer. It also gives impact to the China industry. It also makes consumer loss confident to the industry. RECOMMENDATION Government must test the product before market it. Government must take action to the people who make poison product. The organization should run their business with honestly and do not take advantages. Customer should careful before their buy the product.

Microcontroller Based DC Motor Speed Controller

Microcontroller Based DC Motor Speed Controller In this report I present a microcontroller based DC motor speed controller. DC motors play a vital role in most of the industrial areas. They are mainly used for the mechanical movements of physical applications such as media drives, power plants, lifts, elevators, conveyers, belt driven loads (printing press) etc. The controller implements the control strategy governing the load and motor characteristics. To match the load and motor, the input to the microcontroller is manipulated by the controller. The purpose of a motor speed controller is to capture a signal representing the demanded speed, and to drive the motor at that speed. The controller may or may not actually measure the speed of the motor. If it does, it is called a Feedback Speed Controller or Closed Loop Speed Controller, if not it is called an Open Loop Speed Controller. Feedback speed control is better, but more complicated, and may not be required for a simple circuit design. The former (closed loop) is implemented in the presented controller design. The subject arrangement consisted of a tachometer attached to the shaft of the motor. A controller design cannot be more accurate than methods aimed at measuring actual motor speed. This is readily attained by coupling the motor shaft with a tachometer. The tachometer output signal is converted to a dc voltage signal acceptable to the microcontroller. The microcontroller is programmed to drive the motor accomplishing the load requirement. The operation of dc motor was studied. Several types of motors and various control types were investigated. The project also intends to familiarize us with the efficiency of PIC in control systems. To evaluate the effectiveness of the controller, analysis will be conducted driving variable load while maintaining constant speed of the motor. The advantages of using microcontrollers to control dc motor were studied. INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTOR An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. The mechanical energy can be used to perform work such as rotating a pump impeller, fan, blower, driving a compressor, lifting materials etc. It is estimated that about 70% of the total electrical load is accounted by motors only. 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MOTORS Electric Motors Alternating Current (AC) Motors Direct Current (DC) Motors Synchronous Induction Three-Phase Single-Phase Self Excited Separately Excited Series Shunt Compound FIG-1.1 classification of motors 1.3 AC MOTORS An AC motor is a motor that is driven by an alternating current. It consists of two basic parts, an outside stationary stator having coils supplied with alternating current to produce a rotating magnetic field, and an inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field. 1.3.1 TYPES OF AC MOTORS There are two types of AC motors, depending on the type of rotor used. The first is the synchronous motor, which rotates exactly at the supply frequency or a sub multiple of the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor is either generated by current delivered through slip rings or by a permanent magnet. The second type is the induction motor, which turns slightly slower than the supply frequency. The magnetic field on the rotor of this motor is created by an induced current. 1.3.2 TYPES OF INDUCTION MOTORS Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors The most simple and reliable of all electric motors. It is essentially a constant speed machine, which is adaptable for users under all but the most severe starting conditions. Requires little attention as there are no commutator or slip rings, yet operates with good efficiency. Wound-Rotor (Slip Ring) Induction motor It is used for constant speed-service requiring a heavier starting torque than is obtainable with squirrel cage type. Because of its lower starting current, this type is frequently used instead of the squirrel-cage type in larger sizes. These motors are also used for varying-speed-service. Speed varies with this load, so that they should not be used where constant speed at each adjustment is required, as for machine tools. Single Phase Induction Motors This motor is used mostly in small sizes, where polyphase current is not available. Characteristics are not as good as the polyphase motor and for size larger than 10 HP, the line disturbance is likely to be objectionable. These motors are commonly used for light starting and for running loads up to 1/3 HP Capacitor and repulsion types provide greater torque and are built in sizes up to 10 HP. Synchronous Motors Run at constant speed fixed by frequency of the system. Require direct current for excitation and have low starting torque. For large motor-generators sets, frequency changes, air compressors and similar apparatus which permits starting under a light load, for which they are generally used. These motors are used with considerable advantage, particularly on large power systems, because of their inherent ability to improve the power factor of the system. 1.4 DC MOTOR Direct-Current motors, as the name implies, use a direct-unidirectional current. A DC motor has three main components: Field pole. The interaction of two magnetic fields causes the rotation in a DC motor. The DC motor has field poles that are stationary and an armature that turns on bearings in the space between the field poles. A simple DC motor has two field poles: a north pole and a south pole. The magnetic lines of force extend across the opening between the poles from north to south. Armature. When current goes through the armature, it becomes an electromagnet. The armature, cylindrical in shape, is linked to a drive shaft in order to drive the load. The armature rotates in the magnetic field established by the poles, until the north and south poles of the magnets change location with respect to the armature. Once this happens, the current is reversed to switch the south and north poles of the armature. Commutator. This component is found mainly in DC motors. Its purpose is to overturn the direction of the electric current in the armature. The commutator also helps in the transmission of current between the armature and the power source. 1.4.1 OPERATION OF A DC MOTOR: When a dc motor is subject to dc voltage, the current flows through the armature coil. A wire carrying current also has a magnetic field around it. This magnetic field distorts the parallel magnetic field of stator to produce a force which causes the armature coil to turn. FIG-1.2 operation of motor Each coil of the armature is not only connected to the brushes but the brushes are connected first to one end and then to the other end of the coil. This commutating action is necessary to maintain the same direction of the current flow in the armature coils relative to the magnetic field lines in the field poles. The motor would never turn without commutation. FIG-1.3 cross section diagram of a motor 1.4.2 Types of Excitations There are two basic elements in a DC motor. The way in which these are connected results in various types of DC motors. SHUNT WOUND: The construction and principle of operation of a shunt motor is similar to any DC motor. This type of motor is called shunt because the field is in parallel or shunts the armature. The shunt field is directly connected in parallel with the armature circuit. Shunt windings require large number of turns to produce a strong magnetic field. SERIES WOUND: In a series wound motor, the field is connected in series with the armature. In this type, the speed tends to increase until the back EMF equals the impressed voltage. The EMF also decreases the current in the field and armature. As the field weakens more speed is required to maintain the counter EMF. Thus a series motor is used only where the load is attached e.g. A lift truck, an electric crane. Etc. COMPOUND WOUND: A compound motor has two field windings, the shunt field and series field. The shunt connected in parallel with the armature and the series field connected in series with the armature. The combination of both fields gives double advantages. It has a greater torque than the shunt motor due to the series field and fairly constant speed due to the series field winding. The compound motor has both shunt and series motor characteristics. These will be discussed along with their control techniques in the next chapter. 1.5 TACHOMETER A tachometer is an instrument that measures the rotational speed of the shaft of the motor. It functions in a similar fashion as compared to a speedometer on a car. It tells you the speed of the car. Similarly the tachometer is used to measure the motor speed. In a closed loop control system the information about the instantaneous state of the output is fed back and compared with the input and difference is used to modify the output in such manner as to achieve a desired condition. Similarly a tachometer is coupled to the shaft of the motor. Thus a signal representing the speed of the motor is produced. This signal is fed back to the input where it is compared to the speed command voltage. The error produced is actuated by the speed of the motor. In my designed controller the error actuating and motor control is achieved by programming the microcontroller. It is used to control the rotation of the motor. It senses the input and process it using the program burned in it and gives the required PWM output on the required port pins. This output controls the on/off time of the mosfet and thus controls the motor. This technique and mosfets will be discussed in the next chapter. As long as the speed command voltage is held constant, the motor will run at a proportional constant speed regardless of the mechanical load. The set speed control gives a dc voltage input, for example 12 volts for maximum speed and zero for stationary. This could be a potentiometer providing any voltage in a range from zero to +12 volts. The microcontroller (PIC) amplifies the difference between the two input voltages (tachometer and potentiometer) and the error is actuated. 1.6 MICROCONTROLLER (PIC) The name PIC initially referred to Programmable Interface Controller. Advantages of using PIC over other controlling devices for controlling the DC motor are given below: SPEED The execution of an instruction in PIC IC is very fast (in micro seconds) and can be changed by changing the oscillator frequency. One instruction generally takes 0.2 microseconds. COMPACT: The PIC IC will make the hardware circuitry compact. RISC PROCESSOR The instruction set consists of only 35 instructions. EPROM PROGRAM MEMORY Program can be modified and rewritten very easily. INBUILT HARDWARE SUPPORT Since PIC IC has inbuilt programmable timers, ports and interrupts, no extra hardware is needed. POWERFUL OUTPUT PIN CONTROL Output pins can be driven to high state, using a single instruction. The output pin can drive a load up to 25mA. INBUILT I/O PORTS EXPANSIONS This reduces the extra ICs which are needed for port expansion and port can be expanded very easily. INTEGRATION OF OPERATIONAL FEATURES Power on reset and brown/out protection ensures that the chip operates only when the supply voltage is within specification. A watchdog timer resets PIC if the chip ever malfunctions and deviates from its normal operation. The speed of motor is directly proportional to the DC voltage applied across its terminals. Hence, if we control the voltage applied across its terminal we actually control its speed. A PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) wave can be used to control the speed of the motor. Here the average voltage given or the average current flowing through the motor will change depending on the ON and OFF time of the pulses controlling the speed of the motor i.e. The duty cycle of the wave controls motor speed. This wave is generated by the PIC. . CHAPTER 2. 2.1 DC SHUNT MOTOR FIG -2.3 Shunt windings require large number of turns to produce a strong magnetic field. This is because a small gauge wire cannot handle heavy currents. As a result, when voltage is applied, very little current flows through the shunt coil. The interaction of the magnetic fields between the one from armature and the one from shunt coil causes the motor to rotate. The speed can be controlled by varying the field strength or armature voltage. Current is supplied from the stationary housing to the rotating armature through commutator brushes arrangement. As the stator is stationary, power is applied directly to it. 2.1.2 SPEED CONTROL OF A DC SHUNT MOTOR This type of motor runs at a constant speed practically, regardless of the load. It is the type generally used in commercial practice. Speed of the shunt wound motors may be varied in two ways: First, by inserting resistance in series with the armature, thus decreasing speed (FIG ) And second, by inserting resistance in the field circuit. In this case the speed will vary with each change in load. This normally works with any controller setting i.e. it maintains constant speed despite variable load. Therefore, a shunt motor has proved its efficiency in adjustable speed service and loads requiring a low starting torque. 2.2 DC SERIES MOTOR In a series motor, the field winding (shunt field) is connected in series with the armature winding (A) as shown in the figure. The field current is therefore equal to the armature current. Speed is restricted to 5000 RPM It must be avoided to run a series motor with no load because the motor will accelerate uncontrollably. FIG-2.5 V = Supply voltage E = Generated e.m.f I = Supply current RA = Armature resistance RF = Field resistance 2.2.2 SPEED CONTROL OF A DC SERIES MOTOR The speed of a series motor depends almost entirely on the flux. The stronger the field flux, the lower the speed. Likewise, decrease in load current and therefore in field current and field flux causes an increase in speed. This can be achieved by adding a resistor in parallel with the series field winding. This causes the field current to decrease and the flux drops accordingly. This causes the motor speed to increase. The speed can be decreased by adding an external resistor in series with the armature and the field winding. This would cause a reduction in the armature supply voltage causing the motor speed to decrease. 2.3 DC COMPOUND MOTOR A DC compound motor is a combination of shunt and series motor. In a compound motor, the field winding (shunt field) is connected in parallel in series with the armature winding (A). For this reason this motor has a good starting torque and a stable speed. The higher the percentage of compounding (i.e. percentage of field winding connected in series), the higher the starting torque this motor can handle. For example, compounding of 40-50% makes the motor suitable for hoists and cranes, but standard compound motors (12%) are not. There are 2 major types of compound motors. These are given below: Cumulative compound motors Differential compound motors FIF-2.6 CUMULATIVE COMPOUND MOTOR FIG-2.7 DIFFERENTIAL COMPOUND MOTOR 2.3.2 SPEED CONTROL OF A COMPOUND MOTOR The speed of a compound motor can easily be controlled by changing the voltage supply to the motor. A solid state AC variable frequency motor drive can also be used to vary the speed of an AC motor. 2.4 PWM (PULSE WIDTH MODULATION) PWM, or Pulse Width Modulation, is a method of controlling the amount of power to a load without having to dissipate any power in the load driver. Imagine a 10W light bulb load supplied from a battery. In this case the battery supplies 10W of power, and the light bulb converts this 10W into light and heat. No power is lost anywhere else in the circuit. If we wanted to dim the light bulb, so it only absorbed 5W of power, we could place a resistor in series which absorbed 5W and then the light bulb could absorb the other 5W. This would work, but the power dissipated in the resistor not only makes it get very hot, but is wasted. The battery is still supplying 10W. An alternative way is to switch the light bulb on and off very quickly so that it is only on for half of the time. Then the average power taken by the light bulb is still only 5W, and the average power supplied by the battery is only supplying 5W also. If we wanted the bulb to take 6W, we could leave the switch on for a little longer than the time it was off, then a little more average power will be delivered to the bulb. This on-off switching is called PWM. The amount of power delivered to the load is proportional to the percentage of time that the load is switched on. Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or duty cycle variations are commonly used in speed control of dc motor. The duty cycle is defined as the percentage of digital high to digital low and digital high pulse-width during a PWM period. Thus by varying the pulse width, we can vary the average voltage across a DC motor and hence its speed In my presented controller design the PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) function of PIC is used for the electric current control to drive a motor. PWM can change the duty of the pulse to output into CCP1 by the data. The duty of the pulse of CCP1 is controlled in the voltage (the control voltage). When the control voltage is higher than the regulation value, the H level time of the CCP1 pulse is made long and the number of rotations of the motor is lowered. When the control voltage is lower than the regulation value, the H level time of the CCP1 pulse is made short and the number of rotations of the motor is raised. This mechanism will be discussed and elaborated in the next chapter. 2.5 MOSFETS The speed controller works by varying the average voltage sent to the motor. Imagine a light bulb with a switch. When you close the switch, the bulb goes on and is at full brightness, say 100 Watts. When you open the switch it goes off (0 Watts). Now if you close the switch for a fraction of a second, and then open it for the same amount of time, the filament wont have time to cool down and heat up, and you will just get an average glow of 50 Watts. This is how lamp dimmers work, and the same principle is used by speed controllers to drive a motor. When the switch is closed, the motor sees 12 Volts, and when it is open it sees 0 Volts. If the switch is open for the same amount of time as it is closed, the motor will see an average of 6 Volts, and will run more slowly accordingly. As the amount of time that the voltage is on increases compared with the amount of time that it is off, the average speed of the motor increases. This on-off switching is performed by power MOSFETs. A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor) is a device that can turn very large currents on and off under the control of a low signal level voltage 2.5.1 TYPES OF MOSFETS. There are NPN type and PNP type as the semiconductor part. When no voltage is applied no electric current flows between the drain and the source. NPN type is called N-channel and PNP type is called P channel. An oxide film is put to the semiconductor of NPN or PNP and metal is put onto it as the gate. In case of NPN, the part of N is a source pole and a drain pole. In case of PNP, the part of P is the polar side. When positive voltage is applied to the gate of the N-channel MOS FET, the electrons of N-channel of source and drain are attracted to the gate and go into the P-channel semiconductor among both. With the movement of these electrons, it conditions itself like spans a bridge for electrons between drain and source. The size of this bridge is controlled by the voltage to apply to the gate. . This type (N CHANNEL) of mosfet is used in the presented controller. FIG 2.8 In case of P-channel MOS FET, the voltage is opposite but does similar operation. When negative voltage is applied to the gate of P-channel MOS FET, the holes of P-channel of source and drain are attracted to the gate and go into the N-channel semiconductor among both. With the movement of these holes, a bridge for holes is spanned and the electric current flows between drain and source. Transistor controls an output current by the input current. However, in case of FET, it controls an output current by input voltage (Electric field). The input current doesnt flow. To handle a MOS FET, needs attention because the oxidation insulation film is thin. This film is prone to the high voltage of the static electricity and so on. CHAPTER 3 The highlighted part in the figure represents the shaft which links the motor and the tachometer. The speed of the motor is directly proportional to the frequency of the tachometer. The dc voltage input is provided by the potentiometer. The microcontroller operates on a dc voltage. The output from the tachometer is a sine wave which has to be rectified in order to operate the pic. This is achieved using an F/V converter. The converter releases a dc logic signal which operates the pic. CIRCUIT EXPLANATION: The input voltage to the main motor is controlled by a potentiometer. This variable resistor could be adjusted manually to provide a 0-12 v input. This voltage sets the number of rotations of the main motor. The input voltage of PIC becomes low when bringing VR1 close to the side 1 and PIC increases the drive electric current of the motor. That is, the revolution of the motor rises. The input voltage of PIC becomes high when bringing VR1 close to the side 3 and PIC reduces the drive electric current of the motor. That is, the revolution of the motor slows down. Control voltage is defined as the feedback signal which is produced to rectify the error between the desired and controlled speed. This is provided by the tachometer in our case. The output from the tachometer is a sine wave which cannot operate the microcontroller to perform the programmed functions. This is converted to a dc voltage signal compatible with the pic microcontroller. This changed voltage is used to enable the CCP feature of the PIC resulting in motor drive. The CCP feature will be discussed in detail later in the chapter. The control voltage to PIC is thus governed by the fluctuations of the main motor. This control voltage (feedback signal) is directly proportional to the rotational speed of the motor. The PIC microcontroller is the brain of the circuit controlling all actions to be done and the output. PIC controls the electric drive current for the control voltage to become a regulation value. When the revolution of the motor slows down, i.e. control voltage goes down, the drive electric current of the motor is increased and number of rotations is raised. When the control voltage reaches a regulation value, a drive electric current at the point is held. When the number of rotations of the motor is high, i.e. the control voltage is high, the drive electric current of the motor is reduced and number of rotations is lowered D1 is used to protect PIC when the voltage of the detection motor is high. The voltage which is applied to the terminal of PIC is a maximum of +5V. This zener diode prevents the destruction of PIC when the speed detection voltage of the motor exceeds 5V. CCP FEATURE Capture, Compare and Pulse Width Modulation feature is abbreviated to form CCP. Capture This is the function to capture the 16 bits value of timer1 register when an event occurs on pin RC2/CCP1. This can be used for the measurement of the period time of the signal like the frequency counter and so on Compare Generate an interrupt, or change on output pin, when Timer 1 matches a pre-set comparison value PWM Create a re-configurable steady duty cycle square wave output at a user set frequency. The timer resource of the capture and compare is timer1 and the timer resource of PWM is timer2. The following steps should be taken when configuring the CCP module for PWM operation: Set the PWM period by writing to the PR2 register. PWM Period equals [(PR2+1)]*4Tosc*(timer 2 prescale value), and the resultant PWM frequency equals 1/ PWM_Period. Tosc stands for time period of the oscillations. Set the PWM duty cycle by writing to the CCPR1L register and CCP1X and CCP1Y bits of CCP1CON register. Duty Cycle is based on CCPRxL, most significant byte, and CCPxCON, least significant two bits. CCPRxL functions as a comparative value with timer 2 and a scaling factor to determine the number of counts of CCPx. PWM logic remains high, without considering CCPxCON. The two least significant bits, CCPxCON, determine the percentage of the maximum resolution the PWM duty cycle is extended. Make the CCP1 pin an output by clearing the TRISC. Set the TMR2 prescale value and enable Timer2 by writing to T2CON register. Configure the CCP1 module for PWM operation. PWM can change the duty of the pulse to output into CCP1 by the data. When the time period of the H level of the pulse of CCP1 is short, the time of ON (the L level) becomes long in TR2 which implies that the drive electric current of the motor increases. Oppositely, when the H level time of the pulse of CCP1 is long, the ON time of TR2 becomes short and the drive electric current of the motor decreases. The duty of the pulse of CCP1 is controlled by the control voltage (feedback signal) which was taken in with input circuit. When the control voltage is higher than the regulation value, the H level time of the CCP1 pulse is made long and the number of rotations of the motor is lowered. When the control voltage is lower than the regulation value, the H level time of the CCP1 pulse is made short and the number of rotations of the motor is raised. A three terminal regulator is used for getting the operate voltage for pic. PARTS PIC16F873 3 Terminal regulator ( 7805) Transistor for MOS FET drive ( 2SC1815 ) Power MOS FET ( 2SK3142 ) Zener diode ( RD5A ) IC socket Resonator Variable resistor for motor speed setting Resistors Capacitors Printed board VFC 320 (F/V CONV) Bipolar transistor 2N222 FURURE WORK: Dec: complete circuit design and order components. January: software design and circuit assembly February: Simulation and preparation of final report and presentation March: review and appendices April: submission.